By Norma Jeanne Laurette

(IPDTA) International Positive Dog Training Association
(CCS) Canine Correspondence Studies
(CCPDT) Certification Council For Professional Dog Trainers
(CAPDT) Canadian Association Of Professional Dog Trainers
(APDT) Association Of Professional Dog Trainers

​All of these are well-recognized, prominent organizations in the dog training industry.

• IPDTA is an elite and exclusive, positive dog training association offering both certification and membership.
• CCS is professional dog trainer certification career course teaching 100% positive dog training, behaviour and aggression therapy. CCS offers both CCS certification and IPDTA certification/membership.
• APDT is a membership association that does not offer certification.
• CAPDT is a membership association that does not offer certification.
• CCPDT is a certifying body that does not offer membership or education.

​www.IPDTA.org
​
The International Positive Dog Training Association (IPDTA) was founded in 2002 by Norma Jeanne Laurette. It’s a membership association that offers IPDTA certification, which is required to become a member.

Norma Jeanne joined the Canadian Association Of Professional Pet Dog Trainers (CAPPDT) shortly after its creation in 1994. Over the years she contributed as a conference presenter, columnist and ultimately Editor-in-Chief. She remained with the organization until 2002, when she rescinded her membership after CAPPDT refused to take a stand against abuse in the name of dog training.

Following her departure in 2002, she founded the International Positive Dog Training Association (IPDTA), the first organization of its kind dedicated exclusively to force-free, positive dog training. This positioned IPDTA as the pioneer in establishing positive, ethical and fear-free standards across the international dog-training profession.
In 2009, CAPPDT changed their name to Canadian Association Of Professional Dog Trainers (CAPDT). Since then, both CAPDT and APDT have followed in IPDTA’s footsteps by formally opposing harsh methods. CAPDT released an updated Code of Ethics in 2021 banning strong aversive tools, and APDT approved a 2023 position statement defining dog-friendly training and implementing a full ban on intentional aversive tools and punishment-based methods.

IPDTA remains an elite, specialized and mandated association that strictly prohibits aversive tools and techniques, and maintains its leadership as the first, force-free organization in the international dog-training industry.

IPDTA Certification Options

1. IPDTA Certification Examination
Earn the Certification and Designation: IPDTA-CDT
(IPDTA Certified Dog Trainer)

2. Professional Dog Trainer Certification Career Course
Offered through Canine Correspondence Studies (CCS)
Earn the Certification and Designation: CTB.ccs
(Certified Dog Trainer/Behaviour Therapist of Canine Correspondence Studies)

CCS graduates who commit to using only positive methods can request their IPDTA Certification & Designation at no additional charge adding the IPDTA Certification and Designation: CTB.ccs, IPDTA-CDT

(Certified Dog Trainer/Behaviour Therapist of Canine Correspondence Studies and IPDTA Certified Dog Trainer).
IPDTA provides a wide range of resources for dog trainers, aspiring trainers and the general public through the CCS Professional Dog Trainer Certification Career Course as well as published books, research and articles on their website.

​www.DogTrainingCareers.com

Founded in 1994 by Norma Jeanne Laurette, Canine Correspondence Studies (CCS) was the first 100% positive dog trainer certification career course in North America. It was also the first positive dog training certification program to require practical skills assessment. In 2015, CCS transitioned to a fully online format while still offering the correspondence options including hard copies of manuals and DVDs, as well as hands-on mentoring worldwide.

Although a certificate is awarded for successful completion of each of the three modules, all three are required to earn the CCS certification and designation:
CTB.ccs (Certified Dog Trainer/Behaviour Therapist of Canine Correspondence Studies)

Module One – Professional Dog Training
Module Two – Professional Canine Behaviour Therapy
Module Three – Professional Canine Aggression Therapy

After earning the CCS certification and designation, graduates who use only positive methods can request an IPDTA certification/membership at no additional charge: CTB.ccs, IPDTA-CDT (Adding IPDTA Certified Dog Trainer)
CCS makes resources available to its students and graduates through lifelong access to the CCS course materials, including all new and updated materials that are added on a regular basis. It also offers educational opportunities to the general public through a series of published books and articles on its website.

​www.capdt.ca

CAPDT is a membership association and is the new name for the previous CAPPDT. CAPPDT was founded in 1994 by a small group of professional dog trainers including Andrew Perkins, Gillian Ridgeway and Roger Hild. In 2009 CAPPDT changed its name to CAPDT by the existing CAPPDT Board of Directors and committees.

CAPDT followed IPDTA’s lead in 2021 when it released an updated Code of Ethics banning strong aversive tools.
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CAPDT does not offer certification, however it makes resources available to its members in the form of articles, videos and webinars as well as discounts on dog training books, topic specific courses, software and events.

www.apdt.com

Established in 1993 by Dr. Ian Dunbar, APDT is a membership association focussed on dog trainer education through its annual conference and trade show, workshops, webinars and topic specific online courses.

APDT followed IPDTA’s lead in 2023 by adopting a total ban on intentional aversive tools and punishment‑based methods.
​
APDT does not offer certification.

​www.ccpdt.org

Established in 2001 by APDT International, CCPDT is an independent certifying body focused on standardized exams to validate professional knowledge and skills in dog training and behavior consulting.

CCPDT offers three certification options through examinations:

1. CPDT-KA® – Knowledge Assessed
2. CPDT-KSA® – Knowledge & Skills Assessed
3. CBCC-KA® – Certified Behavior Consultant Canine Knowledge Assessed

CCPDT does not offer membership, direct educational programs or resources but instead provides lists of courses, seminars, workshops, articles and events that can be used to earn the 36 Continuing Education Unit (CEU) credits that are required every 3 years for the trainer to maintain their certification.

By Norma Jeanne Laurette ​

​Dogs communicate mainly through body language and vocalizations (R4). Unlike people who rely heavily on words, dogs use a combination of physical and vocal communications to express their emotions. A growl is often paired with other cues such as a stiff body, raised hackles or turning the head away, all of which add context to the dog’s message (R5).

This layered communication system evolved from their wolf ancestors, where clear signals helped maintain social balance and avoid unnecessary conflict (R6). In domestic dogs, growling can reflect stress, anxiety, fear, pain or even playfulness (R7). A low growl during play can express enthusiasm, while a deeper, more intense growl usually means physical or emotional discomfort, or a need for space (R8). Understanding these differences is essential. Punishing a dog for growling ignores what the dog is trying to communicate and can erode confidence, trust and emotional wellbeing (R9). When we view growling as useful information instead, we have the ability to identify and address the root cause of the problem.

Research has shown that growling can convey specific information such as a dog’s size and its willingness to escalate, allowing many tense situations to be resolved without aggression (R10). When we allow our dogs to growl, we are respecting their feelings, while gaining valuable information that can be used to create a safer environment and happier dog (R11).

​Dogs communicate mainly through body language and vocalizations (R4). Unlike people who rely heavily on words, dogs use a combination of physical and vocal communications to express their emotions. A growl is often paired with other cues such as a stiff body, raised hackles or turning the head away, all of which add context to the dog’s message (R5).

This layered communication system evolved from their wolf ancestors, where clear signals helped maintain social balance and avoid unnecessary conflict (R6). In domestic dogs, growling can reflect stress, anxiety, fear, pain or even playfulness (R7). A low growl during play can express enthusiasm, while a deeper, more intense growl usually means physical or emotional discomfort, or a need for space (R8). Understanding these differences is essential. Punishing a dog for growling ignores what the dog is trying to communicate and can erode confidence, trust and emotional wellbeing (R9). When we view growling as useful information instead, we have the ability to identify and address the root cause of the problem.

Research has shown that growling can convey specific information such as a dog’s size and its willingness to escalate, allowing many tense situations to be resolved without aggression (R10). When we allow our dogs to growl, we are respecting their feelings, while gaining valuable information that can be used to create a safer environment and happier dog (R11).

​Punishing a growling dog is on par with taking the batteries out of your smoke detector, as it removes a necessary and important warning (R22). Dogs who learn that growling is not safe often stop warning altogether, increasing the risk of unexpected bites (R23). These dogs are frequently described as “unpredictable,” with claims that the dog bit “without reason or warning.” The truth is that the dog has learned not only that communication doesn’t work, but also that bad things happen when it does communicate (R24). For more information about aggression see our article Canine Aggression – When Dogs Are Aggressive & Holistic Treatments. For more information about warning behaviours see our article entitled Canine Aggression – The Canine Communications Continuum.

There are emotional costs for the dog as well. Repeated punishment can exacerbate frustration, stress, fear and anxiety, making behavior problems worse instead of better (R25). These unpleasant emotions can develop into ongoing issues such as separation anxiety, destructive behavior, excessive barking, whining, house soiling, withdrawal, avoidance, compulsive behaviours as well as reactivity and aggression. The resulting behavior problems will be far more damaging to the dog’s temperament and emotional wellbeing and a lot more difficult to change than addressing what was upsetting the dog in the first place (R26). Punishment and negativity never improve behaviour, all it does is throw gasoline on an already volatile situation (R27).

From a safety standpoint, allowing a dog to growl can protect both dogs and people (R28). A growl gives the other dog or person who triggered it a chance to stop, step back, reassess the situation and adjust their approach to prevent the fight or bite (R29). Families that are educated about canine communication consistently see a lot less bites than those that are not (R30). Greg, my sister Margaret Ann Frank and I published a book called Puppy Says Let’s Be Friends. Any child who understands what’s in this book will know far more about preventing dog bites than many adults (R50). Click to order Puppy Says Let’s Be Friends.

​Meeting a dog’s physical and emotional needs on a daily basis through a natural, balanced diet, low-stress environment, canine enrichment, play and appropriate exercise also helps reduce frustration and stress-based behaviours that can lead to aggression (R38) (R41). For information about canine enrichment see my article entitled Canine Enrichment For Dogs. For information about healthy diets see my articles Canine Nutrition – Essential For Your Dog’s Health & Longevity and Canine Nutrition – Raw For Dogs.

​The first step to addressing any type of aggression in dogs is always to eliminate the possibility of any physiological, neurological or pharmaceutical causes and contributing factors, because all the behavior modification in the world will not change a behaviour problem with a physical cause (R40).

Once the possibility of physical contributors has been eliminated, only then do we view the issue as behavioural. When addressing growling as a behaviour problem, we begin by observing the dog’s communication in different situations to identify what triggers the growling (R42). From there, a positive behaviour rehabilitation program can be implemented to help the dog feel better about emotional triggers that cannot be avoided. You also have the option of contacting a qualified, positive behaviour expert when additional support is required (R43).

When attending dog training classes, always choose force-free programs run by educated, qualified and experienced positive dog trainers who emphasize socialization, communication as well as both physical and emotional safety (R44).

Children should always be taught to be kind, gentle and respectful with their dog, and to respond to any growling by quietly walking away – this applies to adults as well (R45).

​Allowing a dog to growl is not about being permissive or tolerating aggression, it’s about listening, learning and supporting the dog through an upsetting situation (R47). Growling is a vital form of communication that helps prevent bites, reduce stress, and build trusting and respectful relationships (R48). When we respond thoughtfully and compassionately instead of reactively, we can turn potential conflict into an opportunity for understanding and rehabilitation, resulting in a happier dog with improved self-control, a more resilient temperament, improved emotional wellbeing and a better quality of life (R49).

By Norma Jeanne Laurette

​As temperatures drop, many guardians bundle their dogs up in cozy coats and boots however, with cold weather comes serious risks other than discomfort. Hypothermia, frostbite and chemical exposure are just some of the threats dogs face during the winter months. Understanding potential dangers and taking preventive measures can help keep our dogs safe, warm and healthy throughout the winter season.

​Unfortunately, I was part of the search party that eventually recovered a dog that had disappeared after falling through thin ice a month earlier. He and his family were student  in my classes and the loss was heartbreaking. It’s an experience no guardian should ever have to endure.

Thin ice poses a serious danger to dogs, especially during winter walks near frozen ponds, lakes or rivers. Their curiosity and high energy can cause them to chase birds, squirrels or tossed toys onto surfaces that may look solid but can’t support their weight. When the ice gives way, dogs fall into freezing water where hypothermia can develop within minutes, quickly draining them of their strength and making it difficult for even strong swimmers to find the opening they fell through. Panic often ensures, causing the dog to claw at the ice while exhausting themselves. Their coats become heavy and waterlogged, making escape even more difficult.

Attempts by guardians to rescue their dogs can be extremely dangerous as well, since they also risk falling through the ice. These incidents happen every single year, which is why dogs should always remain on leash near frozen bodies of water and why toys should never be thrown onto the ice no matter how solid it may appear. It’s just not worth the risk! After rescuing a dog that has fallen through the ice, it’s important to start hypothermia treatment right away as it could make the difference between life and death.

Hypothermia occurs when a dog’s body temperature falls below the normal range of 101 to 102.5 degrees Fahrenheit or 38.3 to 39.2 degrees Celsius. Hypothermia can develop due to prolonged exposure to cold air, wind, wet conditions or extended periods of time in cold water. Small breeds, shorthaired dogs, puppies and seniors are especially vulnerable because they lose heat more quickly. Symptoms of hypothermia include shivering, lethargy, stiffness, weak pulse and in severe cases, collapse. Without quick intervention, hypothermia can progress to organ failure and death R1.

Treatment for Hypothermia

Hypothermia is a life-threatening emergency requiring immediate veterinary care while gently re-warming the dog. Move the dog to a warm, dry environment, remove any wet coats, boots or collars and thoroughly dry the dog’s coat. Wrap the dog in blankets or towels that have been warmed (not hot) in the dryer. Place wrapped warm water bottles (not hot) against the groin, armpits and abdomen R5 R6. Never use electric heating pads or unwrapped heat sources directly against the skin. You can also use your own body heat by holding the dog against you inside your jacket or a blanket. Do not place the dog directly in front of a space heater, fireplace or high-heat source – instead use circulated warm air in the room or car. A constantly moving hair dryer on the low/warm setting held at least 12 inches away from the dog can also help R5 R7.
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Never submerge the dog in warm or hot water and never rub or massage limbs vigorously as this can cause re-warming shock or drive cold blood to the heart R6 R8. Never give anything by mouth if the dog is unconscious or severely lethargic to avoid the risk of aspiration. Re-warm gradually and if possible, monitor rectal temperature every 10 to 15 minutes while transporting to the vet (R8). Even dogs that appear to be improving require immediate veterinary evaluation due to the risk of cardiac arrhythmias, reperfusion injury and coagulopathies R6 R8.

Frostbite is another serious concern and can affect exposed areas such as ears, tail, paws, nose and scrotum – areas where blood flow naturally decreases in cold weather. Ice crystals can form within the tissues causing damage at the cellular level that may not be immediately visible. Signs often appear hours later and include pale or greyish skin that becomes red, swollen and painful when thawed. Severe cases can lead to tissue death or even amputation R2. Dogs with short coats or low body fat that experience prolonged exposure to snow, ice or freezing rain are at greater risk.

Treatment for Suspected Frostbite

Treatment For Suspected Frost BiteSuspected frostbite in dogs must be handled very differently than human frostbite in that you must never rub or massage the area or apply direct heat. Instead, immediately move the dog to a warm (not hot) environment to prevent further exposure to the cold. Do not rub or massage the affected areas, as ice crystals in the tissue will cause severe damage R9 R10. Gently dry the areas if wet, but otherwise leave them alone until you reach a veterinarian. Do not apply heat directly to the suspected frostbitten parts of the body as warming the frost bitten areas without supporting the core temperature can trigger re-warming shock and massive tissue sloughing R11. Offer small amounts of room-temperature water or electrolyte solution if the dog is alert and able to swallow normally. Transport to a veterinary clinic as quickly as possible for necessary care. Only give pain relief if veterinary recommended as many pain meds are toxic for dogs. In severe cases, surgical debridement or amputation may be required weeks later R9 R12.

Never Do The Following At Home
​

• Never rub or massage frostbitten tissue
• Never apply cold or direct heat (hair dryers, heating pads, fireplaces, etc.)
• Never use alcohol or peroxide on the skin
• Never break blisters if they form

Be aware that even mild frostbite can result in loss of ear tips or tail tips days to weeks later R10.

Aside from temperature-related issues, winter also comes with harmful chemical hazards. Antifreeze that contains ethylene glycol has a sweet smell and taste that can attract dogs. Even small amounts ingested are highly toxic and can cause rapid kidney failure.

Treatment For Antifreeze Poisoning​

Suspected antifreeze poisoning is a life-threatening emergency, as survival depends on treatment within the first few hours after ingestion. If you even suspect your dog has licked or swallowed antifreeze (such as from fluorescent green puddles, drunk behavior, vomiting, etc.), do not wait to see if the symptoms get worse. Immediately contact your veterinarian or an animal poison control centre and get to an emergency clinic as quickly as possible R13 R14. ASPCA: 888-426-4435 or Pet Poison Helpline: 855-764-7661

Do not induce vomiting at home unless a poison-control veterinarian instructs you to do so, and only within the first 30 to 60 minutes. You must have 3% hydrogen peroxide and use the exact dose they recommend. After about one hour, inducing vomiting is ineffective and increases the risk of aspiration R15.

Offer small amounts of water or milk only if your dog is fully alert and able to swallow normally. Never force fluids into the dog, especially if it’s seizing or unconscious. Transport your dog safely (in a crate or secured in the vehicle) and keep it warm and quiet on the way to the veterinarian.

At the veterinary hospital, treatment within the critical 8 to 12 hour window will include IV fluids, an antidote or ethanol infusion, blood work to monitor kidneys, and in severe cases hemodialysis R13 R16. After 12 to 24 hours, irreversible kidney failure is likely even with treatment. Many pet-safe antifreezes contain propylene glycol, which is far less toxic, but never assume it’s safe and always treat any antifreeze exposure as though its not until proven otherwise R17.

Rock salt and commercial ice melting salts can irritate or burn paw pads leading to dryness, cracking or chemical burns. Dogs can also ingest these substances when licking their paws, increasing the risk of illness R3. Symptoms include excessive drooling, vomiting, blood in the vomit, diarrhea, mouth and/or throat burns or ulcers.

Treatment For Ice Salt Injuries

Suspected ice salt injury or ingestion requires immediate first aid followed by veterinary evaluation only in moderate to severe cases.

Paw Pad Irritation, Cracking or Chemical BurnsRemove the dog from the salted surface, gently rinse the paws for 5 to 10 minutes in lukewarm (not hot) water to remove all salt crystals, then gently pat dry and apply a thin layer of plain petroleum jelly. Do not use human lotions or hydrogen peroxide R18 R19. Prevent licking by using an Elizabethan cone collar and/or sock bootie to cover the affected paw.

Suspected Ingestion

If you notice symptoms such as excessive drooling, vomiting, extreme thirst, wobbly gait, tremors or seizures, offer small amounts of water frequently to encourage slow dilution, but do not force large amounts of water at one time or allow free access to water, as rapid drinking can cause fatal brain swelling. Contact your veterinarian or poison control center immediately and head to a vet clinic if any neurological signs appear R20 R21. Bloodwork to check sodium and electrolyte levels and IV fluid therapy are often required as rapid correction of hypernatremia is dangerous and must be done slowly under veterinary supervision R22.

​Sharp ice, frozen surfaces and hard compact snow can contribute to cuts, abrasions and split paw pads.

Treatment For Frozen Surface Paw Injuries

Frozen surface paw injuries such as ice cuts, snow or ice build up between the toes, or abrasions from rough frozen ground require prompt but gentle first aid. Immediately remove the dog from the frozen surface and prevent it from continuing to walk on ice or crusted snow. Check between the toes and remove packed ice or snow gently with lukewarm water. Never pull or pry at the frozen clumps as this can tear the skin. Rinse all four paws in lukewarm (not hot) water for 5 to10 minutes to clean the grit, road salt and melt any remaining ice, then carefully pat them dry R23 R24.

Do not apply direct heat, rub vigorously or use hair dryers close to the skin. Instead apply a thin layer of plain petroleum jelly and cover the paw with a loose, clean non-stick pad and light sock bootie. Prevent licking by using an Elizabethan cone collar to cover the affected paw. Only give pain relief if veterinary recommended as many pain meds are toxic for dogs. For deep cracks, limping, pale blue or black pads, swelling or if bleeding won’t stop, contact your vet as these could indicate frostbite or lacerations requiring antibiotics, pain control or surgery R25 R26.

​Never leave a dog unattended in a vehicle during the winter as cars can quickly become dangerously cold, functioning like refrigerators R4. If hypothermia is suspected, follow the treatment plan on page 2.

​To prevent these dangers, limit your dog’s outdoor time during extreme cold and keep them on leash around any bodies of water. Use dog coats when suitable as well as pet-safe boots or paw balms to protect sensitive pads. For dogs that need to stay outdoors such as working herders, provide insulated or preferably heated shelter. Thoroughly dry your dog after coming in from the snow, slush or freezing rain, paying special attention to the paws, tail and belly. Check your yard and driveway regularly for antifreeze leaks, be aware of the environment while walking your dog and always be sure to choose pet-safe de-icers whenever possible. Monitor your dog closely for any signs of discomfort or injury and take immediate action if any symptoms occur.

​By staying vigilant and proactive, guardians can help ensure that winter remains a safe and enjoyable season for everyone involved, including their dogs.

R1: American Veterinary Medical Association. (n.d.). Cold weather animal safety. AVMA. Brief guidance on recognising and preventing weather-related
R2: American Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals. (n.d.). Cold weather safety tips. ASPCA. Overview of frostbite and hypothermia prevention for companion animals.
R3: Pet Poison Helpline. (n.d.). Antifreeze poisoning in dogs. Pet Poison Helpline. Information on ethylene glycol toxicity and emergency treatment.
R4: Humane Society of the United States. (n.d.). Keep pets safe in the cold. HSUS. General winter safety recommendations for dog owners.
R5: Plunkett SJ. Emergency Procedures for the Small Animal Veterinarian, 3rd ed. Elsevier; 2014: 346–348.
R6: Rozanski EA, Rush JE. “Hypothermia” in Silverstein DC, Hopper K (eds). Small Animal Critical Care Medicine, 3rd ed. Elsevier; 2023: 723–726.
R7: American College of Veterinary Emergency and Critical Care. “First Aid for Hypothermia in Dogs.” Accessed Dec 2025. https://www.acvecc.org
R8: Swenson BM, Trehy MR. “Rewarming techniques and complications” in Vet Clin North Am Small Anim Pract 2021;51(3):605–618.
R9: Campbell VL. “Frostbite” in Silverstein DC, Hopper K (eds). Small Animal Critical Care Medicine, 3rd ed. Elsevier; 2023: 727–730.
R10: Swaim SF, Henderson RA. Small Animal Wound Management, 2nd ed. Williams & Wilkins; 1997: 312–315.
R11: Bracker KE, Rozanski EA. “Cold-related injuries” in Wingfield WE, Raffe MR (eds). The Veterinary ICU Book, 2nd ed. Teton NewMedia; 2020: 889–893.
R12: Pavletic MM. Atlas of Small Animal Wound Management and Reconstructive Surgery, 4th ed. Wiley-Blackwell; 2018: 645–648.
R13: Gwaltney-Brant SM, Rumbeiha WK. “Ethylene glycol and diethylene glycol toxicosis” in Peterson ME, Talcott PA (eds). Small Animal Toxicology, 4th ed. Elsevier; 2024: 589–607.
R14: Khan SA, Schell MM. “Antifreeze poisoning” in Poppenga RH, Gwaltney-Brant SM (eds). Small Animal Toxicology Essentials. Wiley-Blackwell; 2022: 211–216.
R15: ASPCA Animal Poison Control Center. “Antifreeze Poisoning in Dogs – Emergency Guidance.” Updated 2025. https://www.aspca.org/pet-care/animal-poison-control
R16: Connally HE, Thrall MA, et al. “Safety and efficacy of high-dose fomepizole in dogs with ethylene glycol poisoning.” J Vet Emerg Crit Care 2021;31(4):452–461.
R17: Aroch I, Segev G. “Antifreeze (ethylene glycol) poisoning in dogs and cats.” Isr J Vet Med 2023;78(2):55–63.
R18: Epstein SE, Plunkett SJ. “Environmental emergencies: cold-weather injuries” in Burkitt-Creedon JM, Davis H (eds). Advanced Monitoring and Procedures for Small Animal Emergency and Critical Care, 2nd ed. Wiley-Blackwell; 2023: 712–715.
R19: Hansen B. “Paw pad injuries from ice-melt products” in Today’s Veterinary Practice 2022;12(1):44–48.
R20: Khan SA, Schell MM. “Sodium chloride (rock salt) toxicosis” in Poppenga RH, Gwaltney-
Brant SM (eds). Small Animal Toxicology Essentials. Wiley-Blackwell; 2022: 298–301.
R21: ASPCA Animal Poison Control Center. “Ice Melts and Rock Salt Toxicity in Pets.” Updated 2025. https://www.aspca.org/pet-care/animal-poison-control
R22: Tello LH, Rozanski EA. “Management of hypernatremia in dogs and cats” in Vet Clin North Am Small Anim Pract 2021;51(3):595–604.
R22: Tello LH, Rozanski EA. “Management of hypernatremia in dogs and cats” in Vet Clin North Am Small Anim Pract 2021;51(3):595–604.
R23: Palmer LE. “Cold-weather paw injuries” in Today’s Veterinary Practice 2024;14(1):52–57.
R24: Swaim SF, Gillette RL. “Management of pedal injuries in dogs and cats” in Vet Clin North Am Small Anim Pract 2022;52(4):911–918.
R25: Tobias KM, Johnston SA. “Frostbite and cold-induced injury of the distal extremities” in Veterinary Surgery: Small Animal, 2nd ed. Elsevier; 2018: 2145–2147.
R26: Hansen B, Birchard SJ. “Winter-related traumatic and environmental injuries” in Small Animal Emergency and Critical Care Medicine, 3rd ed. CRC Press; 2023: 488–492.

Photo By Norma Jeanne Laurette

By Norma Jeanne Laurette ​

​Like us, each dog has it’s own learning preference. Some people learn best by reading, others by listening, watching or through hands-on experience. Similarly, each dog is unique and responds differently based on its motivation, sensory preferences, temperament and breed traits. Careful observation can reveal what excites and engages each dog most, such as food, play, toys, praise, touch, attention, scent or movement. By tailoring training to match these preferences, a guardian can make learning faster, more enjoyable and far more effective. The concept of learning styles in dogs is about identifying what drives them. When we train a dog utilizing its natural motivators, we’re not just strengthening desirable behaviours and teaching cues – we’re setting the dog up for success through fun and effective learning.

A quote from Greg Ceci’s article entitled The Resource As The Reward: ”At the end of all canine behaviour whether wanted or unwanted is a resource – and dogs will continue to do whatever works to get it. Dogs don’t work for free and in most situations, treats are actually pretty low in value on the canine resource list – would you continue to go to work if you didn’t receive a pay check and were punished for all your mistakes?”

​Effective dog training is based on operant conditioning, a learning theory developed by B.F. Skinner (R1). In a nutshell, dogs repeat behaviors that lead to pleasant outcomes and avoid behaviors that lead to unpleasant ones. When a behavior is rewarded, it’s likely to be repeated and when it’s punished it’s not.

Science has already determined that while punishment may stop a behavior, not only does it risk damage to a dog’s trust, temperament, emotional wellbeing and the human/canine bond, it can also lead to fear and aggression. For these reasons, we focus on motivating dogs to choose correct behaviours and reinforcing them with rewards. By rewarding desired behaviours, they are more likely to be repeated, naturally replacing unwanted behaviours with desired alternatives. This approach effectively eliminates any need for reprimands or punishment in dog training.

No reward has the same impact for every dog. When we know what motivates each dog, we can tailor training to what they enjoy most and how they learn best, in order to keep them engaged and help them reach their full potential.

A dog’s motivation can also change depending on the situation. For example, a food-motivated dog might ignore food when stressed or distracted, but could still respond to a favourite toy or touch. Observing these subtle shifts allows guardians and trainers to adjust their approach when necessary. When training is built around what a dog finds most enjoyable, they are more focussed and retain new skills more efficiently. The better the reward matches the dog’s natural motivations, the easier, faster and more stress-free learning becomes. For more information about motivation see our first book Blueprint To A Happy Dog.

​Primary reinforcers are rewards that are naturally valuable to dogs, such as food, water, attention and play. They don’t need to be taught to be motivating because dogs are already predisposed to value them.

On the other hand, secondary reinforcers only gain their meaning through association with a primary reinforcer. For example, on their own, a verbal “yes” or the click of a clicker don’t mean anything to a dog however, once they become associated with food, they turn into powerful reward markers (R2). The ability to precisely mark the exact moment a dog makes a correct choice speeds up the learning process drastically.

​Food-motivated dogs love to work for treats and pick up new behaviours quickly, especially when the reward is something new or highly valued and aromatic. Methods such as lure-reward training and shaping with reward markers work particularly well for these dogs (R3). With the right incentive, many food-motivated learners can stay focused and engaged, even in distracting environments.

​Some dogs are less food-driven and more motivated by play. For these dogs, the opportunity to chase, tug or retrieve is far more important than a training treat (R4). Play-motivated learners may require more effort to engage at the beginning but once involved, they can maintain focus and motivation longer than food-motivated dogs.

Toys are particularly effective when they involve movement. For example, using a flirt pole or tug toy as a reward during recall training, or playing a game of fetch to reinforce impulse control, keeps training active and engaging. This type of reward provides both physical exercise and mental stimulation. Dogs with high energy and strong working drives such as Border Collies often respond best to this kind of interactive, fast-paced learning.

​Some dogs are most motivated by social connection. Being close to their people or other dogs can be more rewarding to them than food or toys (R5). For these dogs, treats can lose their appeal when they’re feeling stressed or anxious, while a calm voice, gentle touch or praise might do the trick. Training socially motivated dogs works best when it focuses on connection and working together. Activities such as cooperative care, praise-based exercises, and tasks that involve communication or teamwork tend to be especially motivating.

An example is the Standard Poodle, which often responds strongly to verbal encouragement during agility. For these dogs, the interaction with their handler becomes a reward in itself.

Another example is dogs that love playing with other dogs. For them, being released with a “go play” right after making a right choice can be an incredibly powerful and motivating reward.

​Touch and attention are powerful motivators for many dogs, rooted in their natural need for social connection. Many dogs thrive on bonding with their humans and for some, physical affection is the most rewarding of all reinforcers (R10). Gentle stroking, chest rubs, scratches under the chin or behind the ears and verbal praise trigger the release of the feel-good hormones oxytocin and dopamine, which strengthen the human/canine bond and increase the likelihood that the dog will repeat the behavior that earned the attention (R11). When training taps into this desire for closeness, it feels less like formal training and more like a natural extension of the relationship (R12).

To use this motivation effectively, guardians must observe canine body language for signs of comfort and pleasure. Leaning in, relaxed posture, soft eyes and a wagging tail typically indicate pleasant emotions, while stiffening, avoidance or turning away suggest discomfort, stress or fear (R13).

For touch and attention motivated dogs, desired behaviors should be immediately reinforced with touch and praise to create clear associations, while attention should be withheld for unwanted behaviors such as jumping up or barking to avoid accidental reinforcement (R10). Waiting for the dog to offer an appropriate alternative behavior before offering affection supports consistent learning and emotional self control. When used correctly, touch and praise enhance learning, engagement and strengthen the human/canine trust bond, resulting in cooperative and enjoyable training sessions (R11). For more information about resource control see my article entitled Dominance - The Dirty Word Of Dog Training.

​Scent-driven dogs such as hounds are naturally motivated by the smells around them. Their curiosity and persistence make scent work very self-rewarding (R6). You can use scent as a motivator in training through fun scent-search games, search and rescue exercises, scent discrimination, or simply letting the dog sniff as a reward.
Encouraging a Beagle to follow a hidden scent can transform a regular walk into a fun and mentally engaging activity. This type of training utilizes their natural instincts, boosts confidence, focus and wellbeing, and strengthens the dog’s connection with its guardian.

​High-energy dogs are often obsessed with movement. Training that integrates running, jumping or herding activities keeps these dogs engaged, prevents frustration and boredom, and is highly self-rewarding (R7). Movement-oriented learning techniques are ideal for the herding, working, sporting, retrieving, terrier and hound groups. A Border Collie can quickly learn to respond to distance cues when training involves movement-based games that reward speed and focus.

Agility courses, rally obedience, flyball, lure coursing and fast-paced recall exercises are productive ways to effectively release energy for these dogs.

​Most dogs have a favourite motivation, however these favourites can change. Dogs can respond to a few different types of rewards however, what works best can shift depending on their health, stress level and surroundings. For example, a dog that normally loves a particular toy might lose interest in it in a busy environment but may still respond to an aromatic treat or verbal praise instead. Good trainers pay attention to which rewards work best in each situation (R8). Mixing up your rewards can also help keep dogs interested and prevent them from getting distracted or bored. Being aware and flexible is key to long-term training success.

​Training that utilizes a dog’s preferred motivation offers many benefits. Dogs learn faster because they are genuinely interested in the reward (R9). Using preferred motivations reduces stress and anxiety and strengthens the bond between dog and guardian. Motivation-based training also helps dogs generalize what they learn to different environments. For example, a scent-driven hound trained to follow tracks in a park can apply the same skill in other locations. By focusing on what naturally drives a dog and using it to reinforce correct choices, training becomes more enjoyable, leading to quicker learning and retention.

​(R1) Skinner, B. F. (1953). Science and Human Behavior. Free Press.
(R2) Pryor, K. (2006). Reaching the Animal Mind: Clicker Training and What It Teaches Us About All Animals. Scribner.
(R3) Yin, S. (2009). Perfect Puppy in 7 Days: How to Start Your Puppy Off Right. CattleDog Publishing.
(R4) Reid, P. J. (1996). Excel-erated Learning: Explaining in Plain English How Dogs Learn and How Best to Teach Them. James & Kenneth Publishers.
(R5) Horwitz, D. F., & Mills, D. S. (2009). BSAVA Manual of Canine and Feline Behavioural Medicine (2nd ed.). BSAVA.
(R6) Polgár, Z., Miklósi, Á., & Andics, A. (2015). Dogs’ sensitivity to human pointing is affected by their individual responsiveness to humans. Animal Cognition, 18(4), 839–849.
(R7) McConnell, P. (2002). The Other End of the Leash: Why We Do What We Do Around Dogs. Ballantine Books.
(R8) Handelman, B. (2008). Canine Behavior: A Photo Illustrated Handbook. Woof & Word Press.
(R9) Pryor, K. (2006). Reaching the Animal Mind. Scribner.
(R10) McConnell, P. B. (2002). The other end of the leash: Why we do what we do around dogs. Ballantine Books.
Explores canine social behavior and the impact of human interaction on learning and emotional responses.
(R11) Odendaal, J. S. J., & Meintjes, R. A. (2003). Neurophysiological correlates of affiliative behaviour between humans and dogs. The Veterinary Journal, 165(3), 296–301.
Examines hormonal responses associated with human–dog physical contact and bonding.
(R12) Horowitz, A. (2009). Inside of a dog: What dogs see, smell, and know. Scribner.
Provides insight into canine cognition, attachment, and how dogs interpret human social behavior.(R13) Yin, S. (2009). Low stress handling, restraint and behavior modification of dogs & cats. CattleDog Publishing.
Details canine body language, stress signals, and appropriate handling techniques to support learning and welfare.

Photo By Norma Jeanne Laurette

By Norma Jeanne Laurette ​

​When we talk about agency in dogs we’re talking about something very simple. Does the dog have any choice in what happens to it? Agency means the dog understands that its decisions can change the outcome. If a dog chooses a behaviour such as moving away, sitting or lying down and something predictable occurs as a result, with repetition the dog learns that what it does changes what follows. This is an example of operant conditioning because the dog operates on its environment to produce a desired result. This basic cause and effect learning is what creates a sense of control and autonomy in their own lives, and is a direct result of clear, consistent consequences that the dog can both predict and influence R1 R2. 
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When dogs have this kind of control over their own lives, they can make good things happen for themselves, resulting in a more confident, resilient and less stressed dog. When they have no choice, when their actions are ignored, punished or constantly dismissed by their people, dogs quickly learn that trying doesn’t work and instead end up living a life of learned helplessness. Stress levels rise, coping skills fall apart and anxiety issues become much more likely R3 R4. 

A lot of everyday dog handling unintentionally takes away their agency. Think about the fearful dog being dragged into a crowd on a short leash, there’s nothing it can do to feel safe. Pulling away doesn’t work and trying to hide doesn’t work. But if you listen to the dog and allow it to increase its distance from the crowd, it will quickly calm down. What about the reactive dog trapped on a pinch collar? The dog lunges to either increase or decrease distance only to receive a painful correction. In both cases, the dog learns the same lesson, that nothing will work. The dog ends up either shutting down, becoming even more reactive or aggressive R5.

Once you become aware of it, you’ll see this everywhere. The small dog passed around in spite of all the obvious signs of distress. The puppy forced into the bath or having its nails trimmed while panicking. The adolescent dog forced to heel nonstop and never allowed to stop and sniff. The message to the dog is always the same – your behaviour has no impact on what happens to you. Over time, that loss of control erodes trust and often presents as shutdown behaviour, compulsive habits or defensive aggression R6. 

The good news is that restoring agency doesn’t require complicated training methods, it’s all about allowing your dog small, intentional choices. Let your dog choose between two toys, offer a treat in your left and right hand and allow it to decide which it wants. Let your dog walk away from being stroked or use a long line to give it to control over where it goes and how quickly it moves.

This doesn’t negate our resource control rule to ignore demands, which serves the purpose of teaching self control and reducing behaviour problems, instead it’s an intentional practice designed to nurture confidence and emotional wellbeing. For more information about resource control see our first book Blueprint To A Happy Dog. 

A good way to instil autonomy is to teach cooperative care. Cooperative care refers to teaching dogs that they can choose to participate in handling, rather than being restrained or forced through procedures. Skills such as resting its chin, voluntarily putting its nose in a muzzle or remaining stationary for grooming all work the same way – the dog controls whether or not the interaction continues. As long as the dog maintains the behaviour, handling continues but if the dog pulls away, everything pauses while you wait for the dog to decide whether or not to proceed. This turns care and grooming into a cooperative process rather than a struggle, and teaches the dog that it has control over its comfort and choices.

An example of this is the chin rest, which is a cooperative care behaviour used during handling, grooming and medical care. The dog is taught to gently rest its chin on a person’s hand, arm, lap, or on an object such as a towel or foam block. The chin rest serves as a clear signal of consent. While the dog’s chin stays in place, the handling continues but if the dog lifts its head, the handling stops. The chin rest isn’t about obedience – it’s about communication. When the dog is willingly complying, the dog feels more comfortable and less stressed because it knows it can stop it at any time.

The chin rest is commonly used for procedures such as nail trims, ear and eye care, brushing or light grooming, veterinary exams or injections. Because the dog can opt out at any time without consequences, the chin rest gives it control over what happens to its body. Over time, this reduces fear and builds trust, since the dog learns it doesn’t need to struggle or escalate to be understood and respected. A chin rest is a simple way for a dog to say, “proceed” with what’s happening to it and “stop” just by moving its head.

So what happens if the dog is constantly saying no? In cooperative care training, the goal is never to push the dog until it gives in R11. If a dog consistently opts out of handling or grooming, this is valuable information that should guide your next step R12.

Dogs will say no for one of five reasons R12. 

1. It’s not ready
2. You’re moving too fast
3. The steps you are taking are too big
4. You’re causing pain or discomfort
5. The situation is too emotional for the dog causing stress, anxiety or fear, or triggering past memories of unpleasant experiences

When this happens, the appropriate response is to stop the procedure and switch to preparation mode instead of trying to force the dog to comply. Preparation involves teaching foundational skills without performing the full care procedure. This is accomplished by breaking down the tasks into very small, non-threatening increments, while building pleasant associations, which motivate the dog to willingly comply R13. This is an example of desensitization and counter conditioning because you’re not only gradually exposing the dog to the stimulus, you’re also changing its emotional response. For more information about reducing stress in dogs see my article entitled Stress & Anxiety – Protecting Your Dog’s Health & Happiness.

For example, before trimming nails, a trainer might first reward the dog for simply approaching him or her. They would then reward it for sniffing the clippers or dremel, for listening to the dremel in motion, for placing one paw near the handler, then for allowing brief touches, etc. Nail trimming does not occur until the dog can comfortably opt in at each step R14. If the care is not urgent, it’s best to pause and return later, ensuring the dog understands that its choice to opt out will always be respected, which is crucial to compliance.

When medical care is necessary, ethical practices would require approaches such as fear-free strategies, pain management or sedation to minimize stress as much as humanly possible. Cooperative training would resume afterward to reinforce the dog’s agency for and prepare for future procedures R15. 

Ignoring a dog’s “no” undermines its trust and teaches it that opting out is ineffective, which ultimately destroys its sense of autonomy R16. True consent is nurtured through consistent, patient training and if the dog cannot say “yes,” the trainer’s role is to ensure a safe and positive environment that sets it up for success and allows it to do so in the future.

The same principle applies to everyday activities. Scatter feeding allows dogs to decide how and where to search for food, while sniff walks on a long line allows it to choose its pace, direction and what it wishes to investigate. These small, meaningful opportunities to make decisions can restore a dog’s sense of control over itself and its environment. It reduces stress and helps the dog learn that its behaviour affects what happens next, creating a sense of control and confidence R7 R8.

Research backs this up because dogs with more agency show lower stress hormones, fewer fear behaviours, quicker recovery after startling events and a happier outlook on life, which are all key signs to emotional wellbeing R9 R10.

R1: McGreevy, P. D., & Boakes, R. A. 2007. Carrots and Sticks: Principles of Animal Training. Cambridge University Press.
R2: Franks, B., & Higgins, E. T. 2012. Effectiveness in humans and other animals: A common basis for well-being and welfare. Advances in Experimental Social Psychology, 46, 285–346.
R3: Beerda, B., et al. 1999. Chronic stress in dogs subjected to social and spatial restriction. Physiology & Behavior, 662, 233–242.
R4: Seligman, M. E. P. 1972. Learned helplessness. Annual Review of Medicine, 231, 407–412.
R5: Overall, K. L. 2013. Manual of Clinical Behavioral Medicine for Dogs and Cats. Elsevier.
R6: McMillan, F. D. 2005. Emotional maltreatment in animals. In Mental Health and Well-Being in Animals. Blackwell Publishing.
R7: Herron, M. E., Kirby-Madden, T. M., & Lord, L. K. 2014. Effects of environmental enrichment on the behavior of shelter dogs. Journal of the American Veterinary Medical Association, 2446, 687–692.
R8: Rooney, N. J., & Bradshaw, J. W. S. 2014. Canine welfare science: Recent advances and future prospects. Veterinary Journal, 2023, 421–423.
R9: Horváth, Z., et al. 2008. Cardiac reactivity in dogs: Individual differences and predictive value. Applied Animal Behaviour Science, 1131-3, 1–14.
R10: Mendl, M., et al. 2010. An integrative and functional framework for the study of animal emotion and mood. Proceedings of the Royal Society B, 2771696, 2895–2904.
R11: Hiby, E. F., Rooney, N. J., & Bradshaw, J. W. S. 2004. Dog training methods: Their use, effectiveness and interaction with behaviour and welfare. Animal Welfare, 131, 63–69. A study examining the welfare impact of different dog training approaches, emphasizing positive reinforcement.
R12: Horwitz, D. F., & Mills, D. S. 2009. BSAVA Manual of Canine and Feline Behavioural Medicine 2nd ed.. British Small Animal Veterinary Association. Discusses dog behaviour, stress responses, and safe training practices.
R13: Overall, K. L. 2013. Manual of Clinical Behavioral Medicine for Dogs and Cats. Elsevier. Provides guidance on gradual desensitization and shaping behaviours in clinical and home settings.
R14: Lindsay, S. R. 2000. Handbook of Applied Dog Behavior and Training. Iowa State University Press. Covers stepwise, reward-based training techniques for handling and grooming.
R15: Herron, M. E., Shofer, F. S., & Reisner, I. R. 2009. Survey of the use and outcome of confrontational and non-confrontational training methods in client-owned dogs showing undesired behaviors. Applied Animal Behaviour Science, 1171-2, 47–54. Highlights ethical approaches to medically necessary interventions.
R16: McMillan, F. D. 2017. Mental Health and Well-being in Animals: Canine Welfare and Behavior. Springer. Emphasizes the importance of agency, consent, and trust in animal training and care.
R17: Laurette, N. J., & Ceci, G., 2025. Blueprint To A Happy Dog. [Self-published].

Photo By Norma Jeanne Laurette