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By Norma Jeanne Laurette  Table of Contents
IntroductionThere is unquestionably no doubt that there are too many unwanted dogs in the world. It absolutely breaks my heart to see so many homeless dogs on the streets or trapped in cages at shelters for extended periods of time, not to mention all the deserving and amazing dogs (all of them) that are being euthanized due to lack of space. The World Health Organization estimates that there are more than 200 million stray dogs in the world R1 and in North America alone, millions of dogs are in shelters every year, with hundreds of thousands euthanized due to overcrowding R2. These numbers stress just how important it is to rescue or adopt whenever possible and take steps to prevent the reproduction of unwanted dogs. We know that spay and neuter can be part of the solution but is it detrimental to our dog’s health and wellbeing? Our dogs are not just pets, they are members of the family and as such, we want what’s best for them, including good health and longevity. The reality is that while beneficial at controlling overpopulation, spay and neuter procedures come with risk to our dogs. This decision is not one to be made lightly and many guardians including Greg and I have struggled to make the right choice. Chart 1 – Increased/Decreased Risk For Spay/Neuter Early, Late Or Intact The Pros Of Spay And NeuterThe most obvious benefit of spaying and neutering is the prevention of unwanted puppies. A single intact female can have two litters per year and one intact male can father hundreds of puppies over his lifetime. Spaying and neutering helps prevent accidental breeding and directly reduces the number of unwanted dogs R3. It prevents the suffering of countless puppies and adult dogs that would otherwise be forced into a hard life on the streets, spending their lives in a cage or being prematurely euthanized due to overcrowding. From a medical standpoint, there are benefits for females. Female dogs left intact run a 26% risk of developing mammary cancer R29 and spaying before her first heat cycle reduces that risk to less than one percent. If she is spayed after her first heat, the risk increases to about 8% and after the second heat cycle it jumps to approximately twenty-six percent R4. Pyometra, a life-threatening uterine infection is also eliminated when the uterus is removed R29. For male dogs, neutering eliminates their 14% chance of developing testicular cancer and greatly reduces the risk of benign prostatic hyperplasia, which can cause discomfort, infections and urinary obstruction R5. The risk for BPH in intact males is 50% by 5 years of age and 95% at nine years or older. Behavioural changes are another potential advantage of neutering male dogs. Neutered males are less prone to marking territory, roaming when they smell a female in heat and engaging in inter-male aggression in the presence of females in heat. It can also help reduce the risk of dogs escaping when they smell a female in heat and becoming lost, kidnapped, injured or killed R6. The Cons Of Spay And NeuterIn spite of the benefits, these procedures are not without risk. With any surgery there is always a chance of complications or death from anaesthesia, infections and pain and suffering after surgery, not to mention a potentially traumatic experience at the vet clinic R7. Science has proven that there are potential long-term health issues in spayed and neutered dogs. Studies have shown that early spay or neuter, which is considered anything up to 6 months of age can increase the risk of certain cancers including osteosarcoma (bone cancer), hemangiosarcoma (cancer of the blood vessel cells) and lymphoma (cancer of lymphocytes), especially in large and giant breed dogs R8. Orthopedic problems such as hip dysplasia and cranial cruciate ligament rupture have also been linked to early spay and neuter. Reproductive hormones are important to skeletal development and removing them before the growth plates have closed can predispose dogs to structural problems later in life R9. Spayed and neutered dogs are more likely to develop hypothyroidism, which can lead to lethargy, skin issues and infections, hair loss, cold intolerance, slowed heart rate, weight gain, weakness, lethargy, loss of coordination, seizures, depression and anxiety R20. After spay or neuter, a dog’s metabolism changes and they may require 20 to 30% fewer calories to maintain a healthy weight R10. Without proper adjustments to diet and exercise, many spayed or neutered dogs become overweight, increasing their risk for diabetes, arthritis and cardiovascular problems. Risks Associated With Early Spay/NeuterThe risks associated with early sterilization are higher in large and giant breed dogs. Removing the reproductive hormones before the growth plates have closed changes bone development and can lead to abnormal limb alignment, cruciate ligament injury and hip dysplasia R15. Hormones such as estrogen and testosterone also contribute to immune regulation, metabolism and cognitive function R16. Early spaying or neutering can subtly affect brain development and cognitive function in dogs by removing hormones that support neurodevelopment, metabolism and immune regulation R36. Interrupting these processes too early can leave a dog vulnerable to long-term health and learning challenges R36. Female dogs spayed at a very young age have also proven to have an increased risk of urinary incontinence, especially when surgery is performed before three months of age R19. While neutering often decreases escaping, roaming, and sexual behaviours, its impact on aggression is more complex. While some studies suggest that neutering can reduce inter-male aggression, others suggest it can also increase fear and fear aggression in some dogs, especially when dogs are traumatized during the vet visit for the procedure R23. Chart 2 – Cancer Risks For Spay/Neuter Under 12 Months Are Intact Male Dogs More Aggressive Than Neutered Males?Some studies show that intact male dogs can exhibit an increase in certain types of aggression however, proving causation is difficult because aggression is influenced by many factors including genetics, experiences, socialization, environment and training. Since most of these studies are survey-based, and because people are unreliable observers knowing very little about canine behaviour and aggression, it’s my opinion that these results are questionable. Some studies report that 6 to 8% of intact males show aggression toward their guardians compared to 4 to 6% of neutered dogs, and that 10 to 12% of intact males show aggression toward strangers compared to 7 to 9% of neutered dogs R31. They state that 15 to 20% of intact males are likely to display aggression toward other male dogs, particularly in situations involving competition for females in heat, territory or resources R31. Testosterone is believed to play a role in aggression associated with mating in 25 to 40% of intact males as well as in 20 to 30% associated with competition, especially over food, toys and resting places. They report that this can lead to confrontations with other male dogs and increased territorial behaviours toward unfamiliar dogs or people R32 R33. That said, causation that testosterone alone is responsible for these behaviours cannot be proven through surveys and reducing aggression is never guaranteed by neutering the dog. Aggression in any dog can have multiple contributors and is best addressed through prevention and early intervention, through a pleasant and thorough socialization, consistent positive training and environmental management. When dealing with any type of aggression, the possibility of pharmaceutical and physiological causes or contributors other than testosterone such as imbalances in brain chemistry, endocrine disorders, pain or neurological abnormalities must also be considered. For more information about physiological and pharmaceutical causes of aggression, see my article Canine Aggression – Physiological & Pharmaceutical Causes. My point is that genetics, breed, experiences, socialization, training and environment are much stronger predictors of aggression than reproductive status alone. Approximately 90% of intact males live peacefully without ever showing aggression toward people and 60 to 75% around females in heat. Because most of these studies rely on surveys and most people are unqualified to assess canine aggression, I believe that of the small percentage that do show aggression toward people, most of these cases would at least have contributors, if not causes other than testosterone and if the dog never has the opportunity to be around other intact males and a female in heat, it’s a moot point. When Is Spay/Neuter Safest?For decades, veterinarians have commonly recommended sterilization at approximately six months of age but research has shown that the “one-size-fits-all” approach is not appropriate. When choosing to spay or neuter a dog, the best timing depends on the dog’s breed, size, health status and health risk R11. Smaller breeds tend to mature earlier and appear less susceptible to orthopedic problems when sterilized before one year of age. For example, Chihuahuas and Yorkshire Terriers show a minimal increase in orthopedic risk when neutered early R14. On the other hand, larger breeds such as Golden Retrievers, Labrador Retrievers and German Shepherds are significantly more prone to joint disease when neutered before their bones have fully matured R12 R21. In female dogs, each heat cycle increases the chance of mammary cancer, but delaying spay surgery until after the first or even second heat may allow for healthier bone and joint development R13. This means that guardians need to weigh the risks of mammary cancer against the risks of orthopedic disease. For small and medium breeds, mammary cancer is the greater risk meaning that spay/neuter before the first heat is safest. For large breeds, orthopedic/joint disease is the greater risk meaning that spay/neuter between 12 and 18 months of age comes with the least risk R13. For males, delaying neuter until after growth plates have closed provides musculoskeletal benefits, but doing so could temporarily increase the chance of unwanted mating. Again, if the dog has no access to females in heat this is not an issue. Alternatives To Traditional Spay And NeuterSpay & Neuter While Maintaining Hormonal BalanceWhile spay and neuter remain the most common methods of sterilization, other options are now available. For example, a vasectomy prevents reproduction in male dogs while leaving testosterone intact, preserving its protective effects on bone and metabolic health R24 and an ovary-sparing spay removes the uterus while leaving the ovaries, preventing pyometra while maintaining hormonal balance R25. Chemical Sterilization Chemical sterilization is another option that’s being tested in some regions. Zinc gluconate injections can sterilize male dogs without surgery, though the procedure is not yet widely available in North America. However, be aware that chemical sterilization comes with potential hormonal, behavioural and metabolic risks and the long-term consequences are not yet known R26. Hormone-Based Contraceptive Implants In some parts of Europe, vets already use hormone implants such as Deslorelin to temporarily stop dogs from having puppies, while leaving the option of having it reversed at a later date. Again, hormone-based contraceptive implants can cause injection-site reactions, temporary behaviour changes, metabolic disturbances, reproductive irregularities and potential long-term effects on hormone-dependent tissues. In my opinion, the use of chemical sterilization and hormone implants is simply trading one set of risks for another. Leaving Your Dog Intact Choosing not to sterilize a dog can offer several benefits for their long-term health and wellbeing. Intact dogs retain the natural balance of sex hormones, which support normal growth, metabolism, immune function and neurodevelopment R38 R42. For females, remaining intact eliminates surgical risks such as anesthesia complications, infection and pain after the procedure. It also reduces the risk of certain orthopaedic issues associated with early spay such as delayed growth plate closure and allows for natural reproductive cycles that can be monitored for overall health R42. For males, avoiding neuter eliminates surgical risks such as anesthesia complications, infection and pain after the procedure. It helps maintain normal testosterone-driven musculoskeletal development and can support cognitive and behavioural stability R38 R40. It also preserves the dog’s natural hormone-dependent behaviours, which can be important for socialization and environmental awareness R39 R41. How To Protect An Intact Dog’s Health & BehaviourKeeping a dog healthy and well behaved while leaving them intact requires a proactive approach to physical and behavioural health. One of the most important aspects of both is to provide a natural balanced diet and regular exercise to give them the best chance at overall health and wellness R44 R45. Greg and I always recommend raw feeding because all processed kibble contains low-nutrient fillers and/or harmful ingredients, which can lead to a wide range of health issues including but not limited to allergies, bone and joint problems, gastrointestinal issues, behaviour problems, cancer and a shortened lifespan R48. For more information about nutrition and the dangers of processed dog food see my article Canine Nutrition – Essential For Your Dog’s Health & Longevity. Behavioural management is equally important and requires consistent positive training, socialization with suitable dogs, people and environments as well as outlets for their natural instincts such as supervised play, exploring natural environments and lots of sniff time on walks. Other options include canine enrichment, such as social, physical, handling, cognitive, feeding and sensory activities. All of these options help to prevent boredom, frustration, stress, anxiety, fear and unwanted behaviours including aggression R46 R47. For more information about canine enrichment see my article Canine Enrichment For Dogs. For intact dogs, it’s important to monitor reproductive cycles in females and territorial behaviour in males. Environmental management, including controlled access when a female is in heat and providing appropriate outlets for male energy, is essential R43 R44. Equally important is ensuring that the home and yard are secure to prevent escape. With preventive healthcare, proper nutrition, regular exercise, socialization, positive training and enrichment, guardians can help intact dogs stay safe, healthy, mentally stimulated and well-adjusted R45 R47. Ethical And Cultural ConsiderationsThe approach to spay and neuter varies around the world. In North America, spaying and neutering are considered standard practice and are strongly recommended as a means of controlling the pet population R2. In parts of Europe, particularly Scandinavia, routine sterilization is far less common. Instead, they promote strict leash laws, responsible ownership and responsible breeding practices to prevent unwanted dogs without the need for widespread surgical intervention R28. This ethical debate involves balancing the greater good for society with what is best for the dog and guardian. Although sterilization can prevent the suffering of countless dogs by reducing overpopulation, it also changes a dog’s biology in ways that can increase certain health risks. The ethical choice lies in making an informed decision that considers both scientific evidence and the dog’s individual health in order to make a decision based on risk versus reward. Guardian ResponsibilityIn spite of the choice each guardian makes, it goes without saying that responsible ownership is essential. Those who choose to keep their dogs intact need to take strict precautions to prevent accidental breeding such as secured doors, fencing and gates, supervision during walks and proactively keeping intact males away from females in heat. Lifestyle and family dynamics also play a role as active, mature and experienced households with well-trained dogs are more likely to successfully manage intact pets, while less structured households with irresponsible adults or young children can find it more difficult to keep their dogs safely confined to prevent unwanted pregnancies. SummaryDeciding whether to spay or neuter is a personal choice and not an easy one. Greg and I have spent a lot of time researching and discussing our options. While sterilization can help prevent overpopulation and reduce the suffering of unwanted dogs, each guardian has to weigh risk versus reward for their dogs and themselves. Our dogs depend on us not only for food, shelter and companionship but also to make responsible decisions that will affect the rest of their lives. With careful consideration, we can make choices that support a society that does not contribute to the problem of unwanted dogs, while ensuring our dogs live long, healthy and happy lives. ReferencesR1: World Health Organization. (2019). Rabies and responsible dog ownership. WHO. Global estimates of stray dog populations and public health concerns. R2: American Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals. (2022). Pet statistics. ASPCA. Provides U.S. shelter intake and euthanasia statistics. R3: American Veterinary Medical Association. (2020). Dog overpopulation and spay/neuter. AVMA. Overview of population control benefits. R4: Schneider, R., Dorn, C. R., & Taylor, D. O. (1969). Factors influencing canine mammary cancer development and postsurgical survival. Journal of the National Cancer Institute, 43(6), 1249–1261. R5: Teske, E., Naan, E. C., van Dijk, E. M., Van Garderen, E., & Schalken, J. A. (2002). Canine prostate carcinoma: Epidemiological evidence of an increased risk in castrated dogs. Molecular and Cellular Endocrinology, 197(1–2), 251–255. R6: Neilson, J. C., Eckstein, R. A., & Hart, B. L. (1997). Effects of castration on problem behaviors in male dogs with reference to age and duration of behavior. Journal of the American Veterinary Medical Association, 211(2), 180–182. R7: Howe, L. M. (2006). Surgical methods of contraception and sterilization. Theriogenology, 66(3), 500–509. R8: Cooley, D. M., Beranek, B. C., Schlittler, D. L., Glickman, N. W., Glickman, L. T., Waters, D. J. (2002). Endogenous gonadal hormone exposure and bone sarcoma risk. Cancer Epidemiology Biomarkers & Prevention, 11(11), 1434–1440. R9: Torres de la Riva, G., Hart, B. L., Farver, T. B., Oberbauer, A. M., & Hart, L. A. (2013). Neutering dogs: Effects on joint disorders and cancers in Golden Retrievers. PLOS ONE, 8(2), e55937. R10: McGreevy, P. D., & Masters, A. M. (2008). Risk factors for obesity in dogs in Australia. Journal of Veterinary Internal Medicine, 22(3), 638–643. R11: Spain, C. V., Scarlett, J. M., & Houpt, K. A. (2004). Long-term risks and benefits of early-age gonadectomy in dogs. Journal of the American Veterinary Medical Association, 224(3), 380–387. R12: Hart, B. L., Hart, L. A., Thigpen, A. P., Willits, N. H. (2020). Assisting decision-making on age of neutering for 35 breeds of dogs: Associated joint disorders, cancers, and urinary incontinence. Frontiers in Veterinary Science, 7, 388. R13: Beauvais, W., Cardwell, J. M., & Brodbelt, D. C. (2012). The effect of neutering on the risk of mammary tumours in dogs—A systematic review. Journal of Small Animal Practice, 53(6), 314–322. R14: Salmeri, K. R., Bloomberg, M. S., Scruggs, S. L., & Shille, V. M. (1991). Gonadectomy in immature dogs: Effects on skeletal, physical, and behavioral development. Journal of the American Veterinary Medical Association, 198(7), 1193–1203. R15: Hart, B. L., Thigpen, A. P., Willits, N. H., & Hart, L. A. (2014). Long-term health effects of neutering dogs: Comparison of Labrador Retrievers with Golden Retrievers. PLOS ONE, 9(7), e102241. R16: Root Kustritz, M. V. (2007). Determining the optimal age for gonadectomy of dogs and cats. Journal of the American Veterinary Medical Association, 231(11), 1665–1675. R17: Olson, P. N., & Moulton, J. E. (1993). Pet overpopulation: A clinical perspective. Iowa State University Press. Discusses risks of delayed sterilization. R18: Hughes, K. L., & Slater, M. R. (2002). Implementation of a feral cat management program on a university campus. Journal of Applied Animal Welfare Science, 5(1), 15–28. (Used here for public health links to sterilization programs). R19: Thrusfield, M. V., Holt, P. E., & Muirhead, R. H. (1998). Urinary incontinence in bitches: Prevalence and relationship to neutering status. Journal of Small Animal Practice, 39(12), 559–566. R20: Panciera, D. L. (1994). Hypothyroidism in dogs: 66 cases (1987–1992). Journal of the American Veterinary Medical Association, 204(5), 761–767. R21: Zink, M. C., Farhoody, P., Elser, S. E., Ruffini, L. D., Gibbons, T. A., & Rieger, R. H. (2014). Evaluation of the risk and age of onset of cancer and behavioral disorders in gonadectomized Vizslas. Journal of the American Veterinary Medical Association, 244(3), 309–319. R23: Farhoody, P., Mallawaarachchi, I., Tarwater, P. M., Serpell, J. A., Duffy, D. L., & Zink, C. (2018). Aggression toward familiar people, strangers, and conspecifics in gonadectomized and intact dogs. Frontiers in Veterinary Science, 5, 18. R24: Romagnoli, S. E. (2008). Surgical contraception in dogs and cats: What’s new? Reproduction in Domestic Animals, 43(2), 144–149. R25: Wallace, M. S. (2019). Ovary-sparing spay in dogs: Techniques and outcomes. Veterinary Surgery, 48(7), 1132–1140. R26: Levy, J. K., Crawford, P. C., Appel, L. D., & Clifford, E. L. (2008). Comparison of intratesticular injection of zinc gluconate versus surgical castration to sterilize male dogs. Theriogenology, 70(1), 151–157. R27: Trigg, T. E., Wright, P. J., Armour, A. F., Williamson, P. E., Junaidi, A., Martin, G. B., & Doyle, A. G. (2001). Use of a GnRH analogue implant to produce reversible long-term suppression of reproductive function in male and female dogs. Journal of Reproduction and Fertility Supplement, 57, 255–261. R28: Sandøe, P., Corr, S., Palmer, C., & Bjørnvad, C. R. (2016). Canine and feline welfare in relation to obesity and neutering. Animal Welfare, 25(2), 125–138. R29: Sorenmo, K. U. (2003). Canine mammary gland tumors. Veterinary Clinics of North America: Small Animal Practice, 33(3), 573–596. Elsevier. Overview of incidence, risk factors, and treatment, including how spaying affects mammary cancer risk in dogs. R30: Pechman, R. D., & Mathews, K. G. (1996). Canine testicular tumors: Prevalence and clinical presentation. Journal of the American Animal Hospital Association, 32(4), 289–293. Study on incidence, tumour types, and outcomes in intact male dogs, confirming testicular tumours as one of the most common neoplasms with a prevalence of about 14% in intact males. R31: Neilson, J. C., Eckstein, R. A., & Hart, B. L. (1997). Effects of castration on problem behaviors in male dogs with reference to age and duration of behavior. Journal of the American Veterinary Medical Association, 211(2), 180–182. Study showing neutering can reduce testosterone-related aggression in male dogs, especially toward other males. R32: Salmeri, K. R., Bloomberg, M. S., Scruggs, S. L., & Shille, V. M. (1991). Gonadectomy in immature dogs: Effects on skeletal, physical, and behavioral development. Journal of the American Veterinary Medical Association, 198(7), 1193–1203. Highlights the role of testosterone in male aggression and territorial behavior. R33: Hopkins, S. G., & Schubert, T. A. (2005). The effects of gonadectomy on canine behavior. Veterinary Clinics of North America: Small Animal Practice, 35(2), 287–303. Discusses increased resource guarding in intact male dogs and behavioral implications. R34: Casey, R. A., Loftus, B., Bolster, C., Richards, G. J., & Blackwell, E. J. (2014). Human directed aggression in domestic dogs (Canis familiaris): Occurrence in different contexts and risk factors. Applied Animal Behaviour Science, 152, 52–63. Notes that fear and anxiety-based aggression are independent of gonadal status. R35: Spain, C. V., Scarlett, J. M., & Houpt, K. A. (2004). Long-term risks and benefits of early-age gonadectomy in dogs. Journal of the American Veterinary Medical Association, 224(3), 380–387. Examines behavioral effects of neutering and cautions against expecting universal reductions in aggression. R36: Hart, B. L. (2001). Effect of gonadectomy on subsequent development of age-related cognitive impairment in dogs. Journal of the American Veterinary Medical Association, 219(1), 51–56. R37: Kost, L. V., et al. (2025). Possible side effects of hormonal castration in a dog. PubMed Central. R38: Parsemus Foundation. (n.d.). How Spay & Neuter Affect Health. Retrieved from https://www.parsemus.org/project/how-spaying-and-neutering-affect-health/ R39: American Kennel Club. (2024, March 22). Should You Always Spay-Neuter Your Dog?. Retrieved from https://www.akc.org/expert-advice/health/should-you-spay-neuter-dogs/ R40: Whole Dog Journal. (n.d.). Keeping Your Dog Intact. Retrieved from https://www.whole-dog-journal.com/health/spay-neuter/keeping-your-dog-intact/ R41: Understanding Animal Research. (2020, February 25). The benefits and risks of neutering pets. Retrieved from https://www.understandinganimalresearch.org.uk/news/neutering-and-cancer-the-good-the-bad-and-the-ugly R42: Zink, M. C., & Roush, J. K. (2013). The effects of early spay/neuter on the risk of joint disorders and cancers in Golden Retrievers. Frontiers in Veterinary Science, 1, 1–7. https://doi.org/10.3389/fvets.2013.00001 R43: American Veterinary Medical Association. (2023). Preventive care for dogs. Retrieved from https://www.avma.org/resources/pet-owners/petcare/preventive-care-dogs R44: Parsemus Foundation. (n.d.). How Spay & Neuter Affect Health. Retrieved from https://www.parsemus.org/project/how-spaying-and-neutering-affect-health/ R45: Zink, M. C., & Roush, J. K. (2013). The effects of early spay/neuter on the risk of joint disorders and cancers in Golden Retrievers. Frontiers in Veterinary Science, 1, 1–7. https://doi.org/10.3389/fvets.2013.00001 R46: American Kennel Club. (2024). Training and socialization tips for dogs. Retrieved from https://www.akc.org/expert-advice/training/ R47: Whole Dog Journal. (n.d.). Keeping your dog mentally and physically stimulated. Retrieved from https://www.whole-dog-journal.com/behavior/mental-stimulation-for-dogs/ R48: European Food Safety Authority. (n.d.). Scientific opinions on various food and feed additives. Retrieved from https://efsa.europa.eu R49: de la Riva, G. T., et al. (2013). “Neutering Dogs: Effects on Joint Disorders and Cancers in Golden Retrievers.” PLOS ONE. Available at: https://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371%2Fjournal.pone.0055937 R50: Robinson, K. L., et al. (2020). “An age and time-period matched case-control study.” PMC. Available at: https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC7155881/ R51: Joonè, C. J., et al. (2023). “The effect of neuter status on longevity in the Rottweiler dog.” PMC. Available at: https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC10587138/ R52: Howe, L. M., et al. (2015). “Current perspectives on the optimal age to spay/castrate dogs.” PMC. Available at: https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC6070019/ R53: Loudon, D. (2024). “The Heartbreak of Hemangiosarcoma in Dogs.” Available at: https://drloudon.com/pet-health/the-heartbreak-of-hemangiosarcoma-in-dogs/ R54: Hart, B. L., et al. (2020). “Assisting Decision-Making on Age of Neutering for 35 Dog Breeds.” PMC. Available at: https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fvets.2020.00388/full R55: American Kennel Club Canine Health Foundation. “Bone Cancer in Dogs.” Available at: https://www.akcchf.org/disease-history/bone-cancer-in-dogs/ R56: Parsemus Foundation. “Advances in Understanding Cancer in Dogs: Hemangiosarcoma in Golden Retrievers.” Available at: https://www.parsemus.org/2024/02/advances-in-understanding-cancer-in-dogs-hemangiosarcoma-in-golden-retrievers/ R57: Hart, B. L., & Hart, L. A. (2020). Assisting Decision-Making on Age of Neutering for 35 Dog Breeds. R58: Frontiers in Veterinary Science. This study provides breed-specific guidelines on the optimal timing for neutering to minimize health risks. R59: Oberbauer, A. M. (2019). A Review of the Impact of Neuter Status on Expression of Disease in Dogs. R60: Frontiers in Veterinary Science. This review summarizes the effects of neutering on cancer, orthopedic, and immune disorders in dogs. R61: UC Davis Veterinary Medicine (2024). When Should You Neuter or Spay Your Dog? This article discusses updated guidelines for neutering dogs to decrease the risk of certain cancers and joint disorders. R62: American Kennel Club Canine Health Foundation (2024). What Is the Best Age to Spay/Neuter Your Dog? It Depends. This resource provides insights into how neutering timing affects long-term health in dogs. R63: Parsemus Foundation (2025). How Spay & Neuter Affect Health. This article examines the health impacts of spaying and neutering, including potential risks and benefits. 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